RAPID-TRANSIT  SUBWAYS  IN  METROPOLITAN 


BY 


MILO  R.  MALTBIE. 


FROM  THE  SMITHSONIAN  REPORT  FOR  1904,  PAGES  759-771, 


PER\ 


/ORI 


{^o.  1647.) 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1905. 


1 


lEx  IGtbrts 


SEYMOUR  DURST 


When  you  leave,  please  leave  this  hook 

Because  it  has  heen  said 
"Sver'thing  comes  t'  him  who  waits 

Except  a  loaned  hook." 


Avery  Architectural  and  Fine  Arts  Library 
Gift  of  Seymour  B.  Durst  Old  York  Library 


RAPID-TRANSIT  SUBWAYS  IN  METROPOLITAN 

CITIES. 


BY 


MILO  R.  MALTBIE. 


FROM  THE  SMITHSONIAN  REPORT  FOR  1904,  PAGES  759-771. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1905. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2013 


http://archive.org/details/rapidtransitsubwOOnialt 


EAPID-TRANSIT  SUB\V^\YS  IX  METROPOLITAN  CITIES.^ 


By  MiLO  R.  Maltbie. 


The  problem  of  urban  transportation  is  largely  one  of  rapid  com- 
munication between  business  and  residential  districts,  and  has  grown 
increasingly  difficult  as  population  has  become  more  and  more  con- 
centrated. Street-car  companies  have  tried  every  conceivable  kind  of 
motive  power,  but  they  have  not  been  able  to  keep  up  with  the  rapid 
growth.  Steam  railroads,  which  have  proved  so  successful  as  inter- 
urban  means  of  communication,  have  been  excluded  from  most  centers 
because  of  the  noise,  smoke,  and  ugliness  of  the  trains.  Horse  traction 
is  not  sufficiently  rapid,  and  the  cable  for  the  same  reason  has  given 
way  to  electricity. 

However  satisfactory  surface  lines  ma}"  be  for  short-distance  traffic, 
their  inadequacy  to  deal  with  suburban  traffic  became  apparent  almost 
half  a  century  ago  in  the  larger  urban  centers.  The  steam  roads 
undertook  to  solve  this  question  by  lowering  fares  and  b}^  greatly 
increasing  the  number  of  trains.  London  went  a  step  further  and 
built  underground  roads  connecting  most  of  the  depots  in  the  metrop- 
olis. Other  cities,  such  as  New  York,  Chicago,  Boston.  Liverpool, 
and  Berlin,  have  constructed  elevated  roads,  but  these  are  unsightly, 
find  within  the  last  few  years  they  also  have  proved  or  are  proving 
inadequate  to  deal  with  the  vast  throngs  who  daily  leave  their  homes 
to  seek  work  in  other  portions  of  the  cities  in  Avhich  they  live.  And 
now,  as  the  last  resort,  electric  subways  are  proposed,  and  systems 
have  been  or  are  being  built  in  Paris,  Budapest,  Glasgow,  London, 
Boston,  and  Xcav  York,^  while  other  cities  are  considering  the  ques- 
tion. 

a  Reprinted,  by  permission,  from  Municipal  Affairs,  New  York,  Vol.  IV,  No.  3, 
September,  1900,  whole  No.  15,  pp.  458-480. 

i  Short  sections  of  Berlin's  elevated  road  are  underground,  but  it  has  not 
been  included  in  this  article  because  so  small  a  portion  will  be  below  the  street 
level. 


700         KAPID-TRANSIT   SUBWAYS   TN    METROPOLITAN  CITIES. 


Owing  to  the  eiiorinoiis  cost  of  constructinir  iiiulerirrouiul  roads,  a 
large  daily  traffic  is  essential  to  successful  operation.  This  condition 
appeared  first  in  London.  AVhen  railroads  were  invented  and  their 
utility  generally  recognized,  London  was  already  a  city  of  consider- 
able size  (population  in  1851,  2.303,274).  Its  ancient  streets  were 
considered  too  sacred  to  be  polluted  by  a  noisy  monster,  and  the  im- 
portance of  rapid  communication  between  the  centriil  portion  of  the 
city  and  suburban  areas  was  not  yet  recognized.  Thus  the  first  steam 
railroads  were  halted  at  the  threshold  of  the  inner  city  and  made  to 
build  their  terminal  stations  some  distance  from  the  center  of  pom- 
mercial  activity.  With  the  growth  of  the  city  and  the  giving  over  of 
certain  portions  almost  exclusively  to  business,  some  means  of  com- 


munication between  the  A'arious  depots  became  necessary.  Steam 
surface  roads  were  out  of  the  question :  electricity  and  cable  traction 
had  not  been  invented,  and  horse  cars  were  too  slow.  Underground 
steam  roads  seemed  the  only  alternative. 

For  years  the  construction  of  these  lines  went  on,  until  at  i^res- 
ent  there  are  300  miles  and  upAvard  of  270  stations  within  a  6-mile 
radius  of  Charing  Cross.  These  railways  probably  canw  over  300,- 
000,000  passengers  annually,  and,  including  the  omnibus,  tramway, 
cab.  and  steamer  passengers,  the  total  approaches  ver}^  nearly  to 
1,000.000,000  persons  annually. 

The  unpleasant  features  of  travel  in  the  "  underground  " — the 
dingy  entrances,  the  dark  tunnels,  the  dirty,  crowded,  and  dimly 
lighted  cars,  the  sulphurous  fumes  from  the  engines,  the  dirt-laden 
air — were  appreciated  from  the  start  and  grew  worse  as  the  traffic 
increased.  The  lines  were  mostly  near  the  surface,  and  openings 
were  provided  at  short  intervals  to  permit  the  smoke,  steam,  and 


KAI'U)  TRANSIT  IX  LONDON. 


Fig.  1.  — The  Central  Loudon  tuuuel. 


KAPTD-TRAXSIT  SUBWAYS  IX  METROPOLITAN  CITIES.  761 


gas  to  escape,  but  they  very  inadequately  performed  that  function. 
The  manag-ers.  with  the  characteristic  English  sIoaaiicss  to  adopt 
new  methods  and  the  desire  to  make  large  profits,  reminding  one 
of  the  Xew  York  Manhattan  EleA^ated  Eailroad  Company,  refused 
to  adopt  electric  traction,  and  until  1890  there  was  no  method  of 
rapid  transportation  in  London  other  than  the  steam  roads. 

In  that  year  the  City  and  South  London  Electric  Railway  was 
opened,  about  3J  miles  in  extent,  extending  from  near  the  monument, 
in  King  AVilliam  street,  only  a  few  blocks  from  the  commercial  cen- 
ter of  the  metropolis,  to  the  suburban  district  of  Stockwell,  upon 
the  south  side  of  the  Thames.  The  success  of  this  road  and  the 
desire  for  access  to  the  heart  of  the  city  led  the  Southwestern  Rail- 
way— one  of  the  most  important  English  roads — to  construct  a 
short  electric  line  between  its  Waterloo  station  and  the  Mansion 
House,  opposite  the  Bank  of  England.  This  line  is  very  short,  only 
miles  in  length,  but  it  does  assist  in  solving  the  problem  of  urban 
transportation  in  that  it  brings  the  suburban  districts  reached  by 
the  Southwestern  into  closer  connnunication  with  the  business  por- 
tion of  the  city. 

The  Central  London  Railroad,  the  latest,  largest,  and  best  equipped 
of  all  London  subways,  most  nearly  resembles,  from  the  point  of 
location,  the  Xew  York  subway.  It  runs  from  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land, under  Cheapside,  Xewgate,  ITolborn  Viaduct,  and  Oxford 
street,  past  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Hyde  Park,  and  Kensington  Gar- 
dens to  a  station  in  the  suburban  district  of  Shepherd's  Bush,  a  total 
distance  of  CU  miles.  There  is  a  large  traffic  toward  the  Bank  of 
England  in  the  morning  and  to  the  West  End  in  the  evening,  and 
the  only  means  of  transportation  until  lately  was  by  omnibus  or 
carriage  or  a  roundabout  route  via  the  underground.  Xo  tram- 
way has  been  pernutted  to  occupy  this  main  artery,  and  the  new 
underground  road  will  greath^  add  to  the  transportation  facilities 
of  London. 

Various  other  electric  underground  lines  have  been  proposed,  and 
within  the  near  future  the  Metropolitan  and  the  Metropolitan  Dis- 
trict railways,  now  operated  by  steam,  will  adopt  electricity  as  a 
motive  power.    Bids  and  plans  have  already  been  called  for. 

CONDITIONS  IN  BUDAPEST. 

After  London,  Budapest  was  the  first  city  to  build  a  subway. 
Here  it  was  the  outcome  of  various  plans  for  joining  the  central  and 
business  portion  of  the  city  with  the  park,  a  favorite  rendezvous  some 
2^  miles  distant.  X^othing  definite  was  proposed  until  the  spacious 
and  handsome  Andrassystrasse  was  laid  out,  which  offered  a  direct 
and  attractive  route  for  a  street  railway.  Application  Avas  made  for 
permission  to  build  a  horse-car  line,  but  the  plan  met  with  strong 


76^^         KAPID-TKANSTT   SUBWAYS   TN    METROPOLITAN  CITIES. 

opposition  chiefly  upon  a*sllietic  grounds.  Several  years  later,  after 
a  shoi-t  experiment  ill  elect  i-ie  line  had  i)roved  a  success,  the  scheme 
was  aoain  resurrected,  electricity  being  the  motive  power.  This 
j)roposal  met  a  fate  similar  to  its  predecessoi's  and  led  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  subway.  In  1894  the  concession  was  granted,  and  two 
years  later  the  line  was  opened  to  the  public.  No  other  project  is  at 
present  being  considered;  the  transportation  problem  is  not  so  serious 
as  elsewhere,  and  the  tramway  system  is  very  efficient,  giving  satis- 
factory service. 

THE  (JLASGOW  SUBWAY. 

The  Glasgow  subway  was  started  several  years  before  that  in 
Budapest,  but  being  much  larger  in  scope  and  more  difficult  to  con- 
struct, owing  to  the  great  amount  of  tunneling  necessary,  it  was  not 
opened  until  the  latter  part  of  1896.  Even  then  it  did  not  remain 
open,  for  the  traffic  was  so  much  heavier  than  anticipated  that  it  was 
necessary  to  close  the  line  for  a  few  weeks  and  improve  the  facilities 
for  handling  croAvds. 

The  first  definite  project  for  an  underground  road  culminated  in 
J 887,  when  a  bill  was  introduced  into  Parliament  to  authorize  such 
an  undertaking.  The  local  authorities  opposed  it,  because  they 
feared  that  tunnels  under  the  Clyde  would  render  any  further  deep- 
ening of  the  river  impossible  and  thus  seriously  interfere  with  the 
commercial  development  of  the  city.  However,  in  1890,  a  bill  was 
passed;  these  objections  did  not  seem  of  sufficient  importance  to 
counterbalance  the  need  for  rapid  transit.  Short  sections  of  the 
steam  roads,  similar  to  those  in  London,  had  been  operated  for  some 
time  below  the  surface,  but  they  reached  only  a  few  suburban  dis- 
tricts. The  new  subwa}^  connects  the  business  portions  of  the  city 
with  the  residential  areas  to  the  west  and  northwest.  Its  eastern 
extremity  is  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  from  whence  the  line  makes  a 
broad  swing  to  the  west,  some  7  miles  in  circumference. 

As  yet  there  seems  to  be  no  competition  betAveen  the  subAvay  and 
the  municipal  street  railways.  The  latter  do  not  reach  many  of  the 
suburbs  served  by  the  subway,  and  the  long-distance  traffic  does  not 
use  the  surface  lines  because  they  are  slower.  Even  with  the  pro- 
posed extensions,  there  will  be  abundant  traffic  for  each  system. 

boston's  SUBWAYS. 

The  Boston  subway  was  opened  in  1898.  It  is  entirely  unlike 
every  other  line,  not  being  a  separate  and  distinct  system,  but  merely 
affording  to  the  surface  lines  a  means  of  reaching  the  business  dis- 
tricts without  using  the  surface  of  the  streets.  Prior  to  its  con- 
struction the  street  car  lines  from  the  many  suburban  districts 
around  Boston  all  met  on  Huntington  avenue,  Tremont  and  Boylston 
streets,  or  at  Scollay  square.    Between  Scollay  square  and  the  junc- 


BAPID-TRANSIT  SUBWAYS  IN  METROPOLITAN  CITIES.  763 


tion  of  Trenioiit  and  Boylston  streets  the  congestion  was  so  great 
that  traffic  was  ahnost  wholly  impeded  during  the  busiest  hours  of 
the  day.  Various  solutions  of  the  problem  were  proposed  from  time 
to  time.  An  elevated  road  was  rejected  by  a  popular  vote,  and  the 
proposed  Avidening  of  the  streets  involved  so  great  an  expense  as  to 
be  impracticable.  The  only  comprehensive  scheme  seemed  to  be  a 
subway  in  the  congested  district,  and  in  189J:  an  act  was  passed  author- 
izing its  construction.  The  results  have  been  most  satisfactory.  The 
streets  are  not  nearly  so  crowded  as  before,  and  there  is  a  great  saving 
to  the  passengers  of  the  time  necessary  to  reach  the  central  portion  of 
the  city  from  almost  any  suburb.  The  total  length  of  the  subway  is  If 
miles,  and  contains  over  5  miles  of  track.  Several  additional  lines 
are  under  consideration. 

TUE  COMPREHENSIVE  SCHEME  FOR  PARIS. 


The  problem  of  rapid  transit  w^as  first  agitated  in  Paris  almost 
half  a  century  ago,  and  as  early  as  1870  the  municipal  authorities 
began  seriously  to  study  various  solutions.    In  imitation  of  other 


Fig.  2.— M;ip  of  Piiris,  showing  subways  in  operation  and  umicr  construction. 


cities  an  elevated  road  was  proposed  during  the  eighties,  but  the 
esthetic  Parisian  would  have  none  of  it.  The  beautiful  boulevards, 
streets,  and  public  places,  laid  out  by  Baron  Haussman  at  great 


7(U        RAPlD-TRANSIt  SUBWAYS  TN   METROPOLITAN  CITIES. 


exponse,  must  be  presorvcMl  at  every  cost.  And  true  to  French 
custom  no  i)lan  would  be  a])prove(l  until  a  comprehensive  scheme 
for  the  whole  city  was  formulated.  This  had  been  accomplished 
by  189(),  an  electric  subway  havin<r  been  decided  upon.  The  street 
trallic  liad  become  so  congested  that  no  more  surface  lines  or  omnibus 
routes  could  be  added. 

The  ext(^nt  of  the  Paris  metropolitan  subway  is  indicated  by  the 
above  map.  When  it  is  entirely  com])leted  the  system  will  be  nearly 
40i  miles  in  length,  will  cost  the  city  $:](),000,Oob,  and  the  operating 
company  about  $10,000,000  more  for  equipment.'^  At  present,  only 
one  section  and  parts  of  two  others  have  been  completely  constructed 
and  put  in  operation,  namely,  the  line  running  from  the  Yincennes 
gate  in  the  east,  past  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  the  Louvre,  and  the  Tuil- 
leries,  down  the  Champs  Elysees  to  the  Place  de  I'Etoile,  from  which 
three  lines  operate — one  to  the  Trocadero,  one  to  Porte  Dauphine. 
and  one  to  Porte  Maillot.  The  total  length  is  some  8  miles,  and  the 
cost  about  $7,000,000  for  construction  alone. 

PUBLIC  CONTROI.  IX   GREAT  BRITAIN. 

The  relation  of  the  municipality  to  the  subways  varies  greatly  from 
city  to  city.  In  no  instance  have  the  city  authorities  undertaken 
operation,  but  in  Paris  and  Boston,  as  in  New  York,  the  public  owns 
the  subway,  having  constructed  it  at  public  expense. 

The  extent  of  public  control  is  least  in  Great  Britain,  there  being 
a  marked  diflerence  between  street  railways — surface  lines — and 
underground  roads.  The  former  are  subject  to  strict  control,  and 
the  municipality  may  take  over  a  line  twent3'-one  years  from  the 
time  when  the  franchise  is  granted,  or  may  construct  or  purchase 
the  tracks  and  rent  them  to  a  private  company.  But  no  underground 
road  is  municipally  oAvned  or  operated,  and  no  public  authority  has 
the  right  under  the  act  granting  the  franchise  to  purchase  a  line.  Of 
course  the  local  authorities  may  regulate  to  a  moderate  degree,  but 
beyond  a  somewhat  restricted  exercise  of  the  police  powers  they  may 
not  go.  The  most  important  provision  found  in  any  of  the  acts,  ex- 
cept clauses  protecting  avowedl}^  private  interests,  such  as  are  to  be 
found  in  acts  creating  steam  railroads  using  private  property  prin- 
cipally,^ is  one  requiring  workmen's  trains  to  be  run  each  day,  morn- 

aThe  city  has  planned  for  two  more  sections,  making  eight  in  all,  bringing  the 
total  lengtli  up  to  4.S..5  miies,  and  the  cost  up  to  between  $45,000,000  and  $50,000.- 
000.  ^  These  last  two  sections  have  not  yet  been  authorized  by  the  central  gov- 
ernment. 

*  The  restrictions  imposed  upon  private  companies  relate  principally  to  the 
amount  of  capital  that  may  be  issued,  the  extent  to  which  loans  may  be  nego- 
tiated, location  of  the  road,  the  property  purchased,  the  indemnities  paid,  the 
maxinmm  fares  charged,  the  number  of  trains  run,  the  motive  power  used,  etc. 


EAPID-TEAXSIT  SUBWAYS  IX  METROPOLITAX  CITIES. 


765 


ing  and  evening,  at  a  fare  not  to  exceed  2  cents  for  the  whole  or  any 
part  of  the  journey  on  the  Central  London  Eailway.  Of  course  Par- 
liament knows  no  higher  law  than  its  own  will,  and  may  impose  any 
restrictions  or  may  order  compulsory  purchase  at  any  price,  but  all 
such  proceedings  are  without  the  realm  of  probability. 

This  difference  between  underground  and  tramway  lines  rather 
surprises  one  at  first,  for  British  cities  have  gone  as  far  in  the  direc- 
tion of  municipal  socialism  as  those  of  almost  any  other  country.  The 
explanation  is  a  very  important  fact,  viz,  that  municipalization  in 
(xreat  Britain  is  not  so  much  an  economic  movement  as  the  expression 
of  the  desire  that  the  local  governments  keep  control  of  the  streets. 
The  underground  roads,  in  so  far  as  the}'  cross  or  pass  under  the 
streets  and  public  places,  are  using  public  property,  to  which  the 


Fig.  3.— a  station  on  the  Central  London  Railway. 


public  authorities  have  as  clear  a  title  as  that  of  a  private  individual 
to  the  ground  under  his  house.  The  law  knows  no  limit  either  above 
or  below  the  surface.  Yet  no  demand  has  been  made  upon  the  under- 
ground lines  for  payment  or  for  the  reservation  of  the  right  to  take 
over  the  line.  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  under- 
ground roads,  especially  those  constructed  since  the  movement  for 
municipalization  became  strong,  are  some  distance  below  the  surface,'^ 
that  their  construction  and  operation  necessitates  very  little  disturb- 
ance of  the  street  surface,  and  that  instead  of  increasing  the  street 
tratTic  they  relieve  it.  Further,  they  do  not  promise  to  be  exceedingly 
remunerative,  and  without  public  aid  either  through  subsidies  or  free 
grants  to  use  the  ground  below  the  surface  of  the  streets  many  of 

«  The  a^■era^?e  depth  of  the  Gh^sgow  subway  is  29  feet,  and  the  Central  London 
Raihvay  is  everywhere,  except  at  the  western  terminus,  which  is  on  private 
property,  at  least  30  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  streets.  Only  the  Metro- 
politan and  the  Metropolitan  District  Company  are  near  the  surface  and  have 
open  subways,    These  are  the  steam  roads,  which  got  their  powers  years  ago. 


76()         RAPID-TRANSIT   SUBW  AYS   IN    METROPOLITAN  CITIES. 

lluMii  would  not  li;n'c  Ihhmi  built.  Both  London  and  Glasffow  have 
rec'()u:ni/AHl  those  facts,  and  have  not  opposed  the  companies  when 
they  liave  aj^pealed  to  Ptirlianient  for  power  to  use  the  ground  below 
the  streets. 

PRAXnilSE  IX  BUDAPEST. 

Tlie  nearest  approach  to  British  conditions  is  to  be  found  in  Buda- 
pest. There  the  city  has  invested  nothing;  the  subway  has  been 
built,  equijDped,  and  operated  by  a  private  company.  But  the  city 
has  reserved  the  jM-ivilege  of  taking  over  the  line  in  1940,  when  the 
concessions  for  the  surface  lines  expire,  provided  announcement  is 
made  of  its  intention  two  years  previous.  Otherwise  the  franchise 
runs  ninety  years  from  1896,  or  until  198().  The  maximum  fare  is 
fixed  at  10  kreutzers  (5  cents)  during  the  first  fifteen  years,  after 
which  the  cit}'  authorities  may  require  a  reduction.  The  city  w^ll 
receiA'e  from  the  gross  revenues  an  amount  to  be  calculated  on  the  fol- 
lowing scale : 

Per  cent. 

During'  the  first  ten  years  following  a  period  of  twenty  years,  1916-1926   1 

During  the  second  ten  years  following  a  period  of  twenty  years,  1926-1936_  2 
During  the  third  ten  years  following  a  period  of  twenty  years.  1936-1946__  3 
During  the  fourth  ten  years  following  a  period  of  twenty  years,  1946-1956-  4 
From  this  time  to  the  end  of  the  concession.  1956-1986   5 

During  the  first  twenty-five  years  the  cit}^  can  not  grant  any  other 
concession  for  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  transportation  of  any 
kind  between  the  center  of  the  city  and  the  park.  And  for  the  first 
fifteen  years  the  company  is  exemj^t  from  taxation.  The  city,  of 
course,  possesses  in  addition  the  usual  j^olice  powers,  and  the  conces- 
sion contains  many  provisions  specifying  how  the  subway  was  to  be 
built  and  how  it  is  to  be  operated. 

TEK.^rS  OF  THE  PARIS  CONCESSION. 

The  position  of  the  Paris  subway  is  the  result  of  many  compro- 
mises between  the  municipal  council  and  the  central  government 
whose  approval  was  necessary  for  the  execution  of  the  project.  The 
central  authorities  insisted  that  the  subway  be  connected  with  the 
railroads  in  order  that  trains  from  the  country  might  be  run  right 
through  to  the  center  of  the  city  and  a  suburban  traffic  thus  de- 
veloped. The  municipality  feared  that  the  railroad  companies 
would  get  control  of  the  subway  and  that  a  large  portion  of  the  popu- 
lation would  be  induced  to  leave  the  city  and  live  in  the  suburbs, 
thereby  decreasing  the  city's  revenue  from  octroi.  A  compromise 
w^as  finally  efTected.  and  in  the  early  part  of  1898  the  act  was  passed, 
which  fixed  the  gauge  of  the  road,  over  Avhich  there  had  been  so  much 
disjDute,  at  the  standard  width.  But  the  city,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  railroads  from  ever  sending  their  cars  over  the  subway,  has  built 


KAPID-TRAXSIT  SUBAVAYS  IX  METROPOLTTAN   CITIES.  7^7 

the  tunnels  so  narrow  that  only  those  cars  can  be  used  that  are 
especially  constructed  for  the  subAAay. 

Another  ])oint  upon  which  the  nnniicipal  council  and  the  central 
government  did  not  agree  was  as  to  Avho  should  operate  the  lines. 
The  council  wished  not  only  to  own  but  to  operate  the  road.  The 
central  authorities  objected,  but  finally  compromised  upon  municipal 
ownership  and  private  operation.  This  plan  offers  many  advantages. 
According  to  a  general  law  passed  in  1842,  a  private  company  gets  a 
franchise  for  seventA^-five  years  if  it  builds  a  railroad;  but  if  a  public 
authority  constructs  a  line  it  may  shorten  the  period  to  thirty-five 
years.  Further,  under  private  ownership,  a  company  would  find 
considerable  difficult}^  in  raising  sufficient  capital  to  build  and  operate 
the  wdiole  system.  Paris  could  borrow  the  money  easily,  and  not  only 
easily,  but  at  a  lower  rate  of  interest  than  a  private  company.  This 
saving  would  be  no  small  factor  and  ^\\\\  enable  the  road  to  lower 
fares  ultimately. 

The  contract  between  the  municipality  and  the  operating  com- 
pan}^  is  most  interesting.  The  franchise  runs  for  thirty-five  years, 
but  at  any  time  within  seven  years  from  date  of  construction  the  city 
may  acquire  the  lines.  The  company  agrees  to  maintain  the  highest 
degree  of  efficiency,  to  give  to  its  employees  an  annual  vacation  of 
ten  days  with  full  salary,  to  give  them  full  pay  during  military 
instruction  and  sickness,  to  insure  them  against  accident,  and  to  pay 
the  city  2  cents  for  every  first-class  ticket  and  1  cent  for  every  second- 
class  ticket  sold,  with  the  added  provision  that  when  the  annual 
passenger  traffic  exceeds  140,000,000  persons,  this  sum  shall  be 
increased,  reaching  at  the  highest  mark  2.1  cents  for  each  first-class 
and  1.1  cents  for  each  second-class  ticket.  As  the  concession  fixes 
the  rate  for  a  first-class  ticket  at  5  cents  and  for  a  second-class  ticket 
at  3  cents,  and  for  school  children  with  teacher  at  a  uniform  rate  of 
1  cent,  about  one-third  of  the  entire  receipts  will  go  to  the  munici- 
pality and  two-thirds  to  the  company.  As  the  cost  will  be  about 
$35,000,000  for  the  lines  thus  far  authorized,  an  annual  revenue  of 
$1,100,000  will  be  necessary  to  pay  the  interest,  sinking-fund  charges, 
and  incidental  expenses;  operating  expenses  are  paid  by  the  com- 
pany leasing  the  subway.  Thus,  if  the  entire  system  should  carry 
only  125,000,000  passengers  annually,  the  city  would  more  than  pay 
all  expenses.  As  this  is  considered  a  very  low  estimate  and  as  it 
seems  almost  certain  that  the  traffic  will  far  exceed  this  number,  the 
city  will  probably  find  the  subway  a  paying  investment.  The  roads 
in  London,  Berlin,  and  Xew  York  carry  nearly  5.000,000  passengers 
per  mile  per  year;  the  Paris  subway  ought  easily  to  reach  the  nec- 
essary 3,000,000  per  mile  per  year. 

The  entire  system  of  subways  is  not  to  be  constructed  at  once,  but  is 
to  be  divided  into  six  sections  (two  mox'e  have  not  been  approved  by 


768         RAPTD-TRANSIT   SUBWAYS   IN    METROPOLITAN  CITIES. 


the  central  goveriinieiit) ,  Avhich  are  to  be  opened  from  time  to  time  as 
specified  in  the  act,  nntil  by  lOlG  every  line  will  be  in  operation.  All 
are  to  be  operated  by  the  present  leasing  company  and  upon  the  same 
terms  as  given  above.  The  thirty-five-year  period — the  duration  of 
the  franchise — is  to  run  from  the  date  of  opening  each  line,  and  to 
prevent  any  inconvenience  Avhich  might  arise  from  franchises  for 
dijfferent  sections  falling  in  at  different  dates,  the  concession  pro- 
vides that  the  compan}^  may  retain  possession  of  all  until  the  termi- 
nation of  the  last  franchise,  and  shall  pay  45,000  francs  per  kilometer 
per  year  ($14,000  per  mile)  for  every  line  whose  lease  expires  pre- 
vious to  that  time. 

CONDITIOXS  IX  BOSTON  LEASE. 

Like  Paris,  Boston  owns  its  subway  and  has  rented  it  for  twenty 
3'ears  to  a  private  company — the  West  End  Elevated  Railway  Com- 
pany, which  has  subleased  it  to  the  Boston  Elevated  Railway  Com- 
pany. The  rental  Avill  ne^  er  be  less  than  4J  per  cent  of  the  cost  of 
the  subway,  and  if  this  sum  does  not  amount  to  5  cents  for  each  car 
using  the  subway,  it  shall  be  made  up  to  this  sum.  The  income  will 
pay  the  interest  on  all  outstanding  bonds  and  provide  a  sinking 
fund  to  extinguish  them  at  maturity — forty  years  hence.  All  oper- 
ating expenses  are  paid  by  the  operating  company,  and  at  the  ex- 
piration of  the  lease  the  city  Avill  pay  the  fair  value  of  all  rails,  pipes, 
wires,  etc.,  which  are  affixed  to  the  subway. 

COMPEXSATIOX. 

Comj^aring  the  various  methods  of  securing  compensation,  it  is 
evident  that  in  no  instance  have  large  profits  been  secured.  Buda- 
pest undoubtedly  receives  the  most,  considering  the  fact  that  it  has 
invested  nothing,  for  even  the  expense  of  rearranging  sewers,  water 
mains,  conduits,  etc.,  was  borne  by  the  subway  company.  Paris  may 
make  the  most,  for  if  the  traffic  greatly  exceeds  125,000,000  persons 
annual the  net  profit  will  be  more  than  5  per  cent  of  the  gross  re- 
ceipts, as  the  rate  is  about  33  per  cent  of  the  gross  receipts.  How- 
ever, if  the  traffic  should  fall  considerably  below  this  figure,  the 
municipality  will  need  to  make  up  the  deficit  from  other  sources. 
There  seems  to  be  little  risk  in  this  direction,  and  Paris  has  followed 
its  usual  course  of  exacting  large  payments  from  municipal  monopo- 
lies rather  than  of  requiring  loAver  prices  and  increasingly  better  serv- 
icer London  and  Glasgow  are  at  the  other  extreme,  and  Xew  York 
and  Boston  are  not  far  distant,  for  the  payments  are  not  large,  barely 
exceeding  for  the  present  the  interest  on  bonds  issued  for  the  cx)nstruc- 
tion  of  the  subways  and  sinking  fund  charges  to  wipe  out  the  debt. 

Considerable  variety  exists  also  as  to  the  basis  for  compensation. 
Budapest  uses  gross  receipts^an  easily  ascertainable  basis  and  freed 


EAPID-TRAXSIT  SUBWAYS  IN  METROPOLITAN   CITIES.  7B9 


from  much  adverse  criticism  by  the  requirement  that  the  rate  in- 
crease as  the  years  pass,  or.  in  other  words,  as  the  road  becomes  more 
remunerative.  Paris  has  adopted  an  even  shnpler  basis,  receiving  a 
certain  fixed  sum  for  each  ticket  sold.  An  attempt  has  also  been 
made  to  vary  the  amount  with  the  traffic,  but  not  quite  so  success- 
fully as  in  Budapest.  In  Boston  and  New  York  the  cost  of  con- 
struction is  used  as  a  basis,  and  the  payment  to  the  city  is  a  fixed 
sum,  n'o  matter  what  the  profit  or  the  loss  to  the  private  company  or 
the  size  of  the  traffic. 

MOTIVE  POWERS. 

An  examination  of  the  roads  themselves  reveals  a  great  ditference 
between  those  recently  constructed  and  the  underground  lines  in  Lon- 
don built  many  years  ago.  Steam  as  a  motive  power  has  given  way 
to  electricity.  Every  London  line  constructed  since  1890 — the  date 
when  the  City  and  South  London  road  was  opened — has  adopted  the 
third-rail  electric  system,  as  have  also  Paris  and  New  York.  The 
Budapest  and  Boston  subways  use  the  overhead  trolley.  Glasgow 
clings  to  cable  traction,  which  is  largely  accounted  for  by  the  con- 
servatism of  the  Scotch  and  the  fact  that  in  1890,  when  the  work  was 
begun  on  the  subway,  electricity  had  not  yet  clearly  demonstrated  its 
efficiency.  Cable  traction  Avas  much  cheaper,  and  upon  the  steep 
grades  the  car  going  down  will  help  to  pull  up  the  car  going  in  the 
opposite  direction.  The  act  of  Parliament  imposes  no  conditions 
except  that  steam  can  not  be  used.  The  Glasgow  subway  is  unique, 
in  that  it  is  the  only  underground  cable  railway  for  passengers  in  the 
world.    Thus  far  it  has  worked  very  well. 

TRAVEL  A  PLEASI  RE. 

All  the  modern  subways,  even  that  of  Glasgow,  have  adopted  elec- 
tric lighting,  and  the  cars  and  tunnels  are  in  marked  contrast  to 
those  of  the  steam  lines  in  London,  which  are  dimly  lighted,  dirty, 
and  forbidding.  Glazed  tiles  have  generally  been  used,  especially  at 
the  stations,  and  in  every  Avay  the  comfort  and  pleasure  of  the  pas- 
sengers haA'e  been  administered  to.  The  entrances  in  Boston  and 
Budapest  particularly  are  very  artistic,  and  instead  of  being  repel- 
lant,  because  of  their  dirt  and  ugliness,  e^  en  add  to  the  beauty  of  the 
streets  and  public  places  in  which  they  are  located.  The  London 
electric  lines,  being  situated  many  feet  below  the  level  of  the  streets, 
have  provided  spacious  elevators,  which  counteract  the  disadvantages 
of  deep-level  travel.  The  Paris,  Budapest,  and  Boston  subways  do 
not  need  them,  being  located  near  the  surface  of  the  streets.  The 
Glasgow  company  has  one.  in  Kelvinbridge.  where  the  road  is  115 
feet  below  the  crest  of  the  hill,  and  New  York  will  liave  a  few  when\ 
the  road  is  far  below  the  surface. 
SM  1904  i9 


770         RAPID-TRANSIT  SUBWAYS  IN   METROPOLITAN  CITIES. 


In  the  construction  of  the  subways,  plans  nuicli  the  same  have  been 
followed  e^'elTwhere.  Where  the  road  level  is  near  the  street  level, 
an  open  ditch  was  made,  steel  framework  inserted,  and  the  street  pave- 
ment replaced.  AVhere  this  w^as  impracticable,  tunnels  were  driven ; 
and  in  a  few  instances  short  viaducts  were  erected.  The  Budapest  sub- 
Avay  is  everywhere  just  below  the  street  level,  and  consists  of  two  par- 
allel lines  at  the  same  level,  separated  only  by  steel  pillars,  station 
platforms,  or  thin  walls.  The  Paris  subway  likewise  consists  of  two 
parallel  lines  and  alwaj^s  at  the  same  level,  except  where  one  section 
crosses  another  and  a  dip  is  made  to  avoid  crossing  at  grade.  Some 
of  the  distance  the  lines  run  side  by  side  in  a  single  tunnel;  in  other 
portions  each  line  has  a  separate  tunnel,  uniting  only  at  stations. 
The  Glasgow  road  consists  of  two  distinct  tunnels  throughout,  except 
at  stations,  as  is  true  of  nearly  all  the  London  electric  lines  except  the 
Waterloo  and  City  road,  which  has  only  one  line  almost  all  the  way. 
The  Boston  sllb^^'ay  has  from  two  to  four  lines,  usually  at  the  same 


Fig.  4.— Budapest  stations. 


level,  except  where  it  is  necessary  to  raise  or  lower  one  to  avoid  grade 
crossings.  The  Xew  York  line  is  the  only  one  that  has  tracks  for  the 
special  purpose  of  running  express  trains;  and  with  the  Central  Lon- 
don road  is  unique  in  raising  its  stations  above  the  level  of  the  road. 
Each  tram  on  its  departure  thus  is  accelerated  by  the  force  of 
gravity,  and  as  it  ap2:)roaches  is  checked  by  the  same  force.  This  will 
greatly  increase  the  rate  of  speed  by  reducing  the  time  required  for 
stopping  and  starting. 

Most  of  the  modern  subways  are  adopting  the  American  style  of 
car.  with  an  entrance  at  each  end,  in  place  of  the  old-style  compart- 
ment coach.  Even  the  London  roads  are  making  the  change,  and  the 
Glasgow  line  introduced  them  at  the  start.  The  Paris  car  is  a 
]iy])rid.  having  two  doors  on  each  side,  one  set  being  used  for  entrance 
and  the  other  for  exit.  The  train  idea  seems  also  to  be  s])reading, 
as  l)eing  more  economical  and  better  adapted  to  handling  large 
crowds. 


EAPID-TEANSIT  SUBWAYS  IX  METROPOLITAN  CITIES. 


771 


There  is  one  marked  difference  between  foreign  and  American 
lines.  ^lost  of  the  former  have  first  and  second-class  compartments 
or  cars;  the  latter  charge  the  same  fare  for  every  one.  The  Glasgow 
subway  maintains  only  one  service  and  the  tendency  elsewhere  is  in 
this  direction.    Some  London  roads  have  already  made  the  change. 

The  uniform  fare,  regardless  of  distance,  is  also  more  common 
with  us  than  abroad.  In  Paris  and  Budapest  it  is  in  vogue,  but  the 
lines  are  so  short  as  to  render  a  graded  system  unnecessary.  The 
Glasgow  company  intended  to  adopt  it.  but  as  the  cars  run  continu- 
ously around  the  circle,  one  avouIcI  be  able  to  ride  indefinitely  for  one 
fare.  To  prevent  this,  a  zone  system  was  adopted.  A  penny  ticket 
(2  cents)  allows  one  to  go  as  far  as  the  fourth  station  from  where 
he  enters  the  car,  or  about  1^  miles — one-fourth  the  circumference 


Fig.  5.— a  Central  London  Railway  car. 


of  the  road.  A  2-penny  ticket  (l  cents)  entitles  one  to  travel  any 
distance,  but  not  more  than  once  around  the  circle.  A  ticket  is 
given  each  passenger,  which  he  gives  up  upon  leaving  the  station  at 
his  destination.  Any  one  who  has  ridden  farther  than  his  ticket 
indicates  is  thus  found  out  and  required  to  pay. 

That  the  subways  of  London,  Paris,  Budapest,  Glasgow,  and  Bos- 
ton were  needed  and  are  performing  a  useful  social  service  is  shown 
by  the  large  number  of  passengers  carried.  Their  influence  can 
only  partially  be  estimated,  but  undoubtedly  the  effect  upon  social 
conditions,  especially  housing  and  overcrowding,  is  considerable, 
not  to  mention  the  saA^ng  of  time  in  going  to  and  from  work.  Doubt- 
less rapid  transit  will  not  solve  either  the  housing  problem  or  trans- 
form our  cities  into  Utopias,  but  it  will  alleviate  social  conditions 
and  prevent  what  otherwise  would  be  unbearable  evils. 


